Journal Articles

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Food security and natural resource management in developing countries
(2001) Mwakalobo, Adam; Shively, Gerald
This paper provides an overview of the main concerns related to food security and natural resource management in developing countries. It is intended to serve as an introduction to the subject for students and non-specialist practitioners. The paper summarizes a number of different strands in the literature on poverty, food insecurity, and natural resource degradation, as well as their causes. The paper summarizes some of the many studies that have sought to explain options to achieve sustainable food security and natural resource use. Throughout the paper, the problem of sustaining food security and natural resource use in developing countries is highlighted as a poverty problem, conditioned on and influenced by institutional, technological, demographic, ecological and economic factors and constraints. A focus is placed on sub-Saharan Africa. The main theme of the paper is that, in order to achieve sustainable food security and use of natural resources, developing countries need to address poverty and its root causes.
Food status and income levels among dairy and non-dairy farmers in Chunya district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2001) Kayunze, K. A.; Urassa, J. K.; Mwakalobo, A. B. S.
In order to reveal the role of dairy farming in poverty alleviation and food security improvement, a research was conducted in 11 villages of Chunya District in December 2000 among 30 dairy farmers and 30 non-dairy farmers. Their income from four sources of non-agricultural, agricultural, livestock and rental activities were compared with a poverty line of Tsh 130,128/= per adult equivalent per year. Their grains harvest in the crop season 1999/2000 were compared with three 90-kg bags of grains per adult equivalent per year. The objectives were to determine the number of food insecure households on the basis of three bags of grains for an adult person per year and income per adult equivalent from four sources. Another objective was to compare food status and income between dairy and non-dairy farmers. Average income among dairy farmers was Tsh 295,858/= while that among non-dairy farmers was Tsh 176,804/= per adult equivalent per year. Only 23.3% of dairy farmers had income below the poverty line while 50% of non-dairy farmers had income below the poverty line. The average of 90-kg bags among dairy farmers was 2.4 and 2.5 per adult equivalent among non-dairy farmers. Based on the grains, 76.7% dairy farmers were food insecure while among non-dairy farmers food insecure households were 83.3%. A t-test to compare the income between the two groups gave significant differences at 5% (p= 0.026). However, the food status between them did not differ significantly (p = 0.427). It is concluded that dairy farming is very effective for poverty reduction. Therefore, development agencies, including government departments, NGOs, religious groups and donors are urged to help poor people reduce poverty by helping them keep dairy cattle. This can be done by establishing heifer in trust schemes, that is "kopa ng'ombe lipa ng'ombe", like the Japanese Counterpart for Food Aid (JCFFA) is doing in Chunya District:
Social and economic factors affecting the adoption of soil and water conservation in West Usambara highlands, Tanzania
(Wiley, 2004) Tenge, A. J.; De Graaff, J.; Hella, J. P.
Accelerated soil erosion is one of the major constraints to agricultural production in many parts of the Tanzanian highlands. Although several soil and water conservation technologies have been developed and promoted, the adoption of many recommended measures is minimal and soil erosion continues to be a problem. This research was conducted in order to determine the social and economic factors that influence adoption of soil and water conservation (SWC) measures in the West Usambara highlands, Tanzania. For this research a household survey, group discussions and transect walks were undertaken. A total of 104 households were interviewed and several fields were visited during the transect walks. Data was analysed with the use of cross‐tabulation, cluster analysis, factor analysis and chi‐squared methods. The results obtained indicate that involvement in off‐farm activities, insecure land tenure, location of fields and a lack of short‐term benefits from SWC are among the major factors that negatively influence adoption of SWC measures. Membership in farmer groups, level of education, contacts with extension agents and SWC programmes were found to be positively influencing the adoption of SWC measures. Recommendations to facilitate adoption of different SWC measures include: integration of social and economic factors into SWC plans; the creation of more awareness among farmers of soil‐erosion effects and long‐term benefits of SWC; the development of flexible SWC measures to cater for different farm patterns and a participatory approach to SWC at catchment level rather than at individual farmers' fields.
Financial efficiency of major soil and water conservation measures in West Usambara highlands, Tanzania
(Elsevier BV, 2005-10) A.J. Tenge; J. De graaff; J.P. Hella
Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) measures are needed to control soil erosion and sustain agricultural production on steep slopes of West Usambara mountains. However, the adoption by farmers of the recommended soil and water conservation measures is low and soil erosion continues to be a problem. It could well be that the reason for the low adoption is that the costs to invest in soil and water conservation are higher than the eventual benefits. This research assessed the costs and benefits of bench terraces, grass strips and fanya juu, which are major SWC measures. Financial Cost Benefit Analysis (FCBA) was undertaken for farmers with low, moderate and high opportunity costs of labour at different slopes and soil types. The results show that labour is the major cost item in implementing SWC measures and is higher with bench terraces than with fanya juu and grass strips. The results also show that the costs of establishing the three SWC measures exceed the returns in the initial 2 years. However, in the long term, the three SWC measures are profitable to farmers with low to medium opportunity costs of labour on gentle to moderate slopes. It was also found that SWC measures are not financially attractive to most farmers with off-farm activities and other sources of income. It is concluded that high investment costs and initial negative returns are the major hindrances to the adoption of SWC measures by smallholder farmers in West Usambara mountains. Options to overcome the initial investment costs include the gradual investment in SWC measures, introduction of high value crops and small credit facilities. The promotion of dairy cattle under zero grazing system can also increase the adoption of SWC measures because of the high benefits from grasses used to stabilise SWC measures.
Participatory soil and water conservation planning using a financial analysis tool in the West Usambara highlands of Tanzania
(Wiley, 2006) Tenge, A. J.; Okoba, B. O.; Sterk, G.
Despite decades of soil and water conservation (SWC) efforts in Tanzania, the adoption of the recommended SWC measures by farmers is minimal. In the past, SWC plans did not incorporate farmers' knowledge, and the economics of SWC was not given much attention at the planning stage. This research evaluated the applicability of two tools for participatory soil erosion mapping using farmers' indicators of soil erosion and financial analysis of SWC measures at the planning stage. The two tools were evaluated in Kwalei catchment in the West Usambara highlands, Tanzania. The participatory soil erosion‐mapping tool uses farmers' indicators of soil erosion to identify, classify and map soil erosion at the catchment level. The financial analysis tool involves farmers in a stepwise analysis of the costs and benefits of SWC measures before the implementation. The erosion‐mapping tool increased farmers' awareness on the severity of soil erosion problems, and they realised the need for SWC plans at both field and catchment scales. With the financial analysis tool farmers participated in the cost and benefits analysis and were able to select SWC options that were feasible under their socio‐economic situation. The two tools were able to demonstrate that farmers' participation in SWC planning increases the acceptance of SWC measures because they solve problems that are perceived by themselves. The financial analysis tool demonstrated how farmers could make selection of SWC measures that are feasible under their biophysical and economic condition if they are informed about the costs and benefits.
The role of wild mushrooms in the livelihoods of rural people in Kiwele village, Iringa, Tanzania: implications for policy.
(Academy Science Publishers, 2006) Ngaga, Y. M; Munyanziza, E; Masalu, H. E.
A study on the relative position of mushrooms in the livelihoods of rural people living away from urban centres was conducted in Kiwele village, Tanzania. Data were gathered through a questionnaire administered to 130 respondents. About 76% of the households surveyed do not harvest 5 bags of maize (100 kg each) per acre, indicating a loss of land productivity. All the respondents suffer from hunger, the severest period being November to March, the cropping season. Almost all the respondents (97%) eat mushrooms during this period. Despite their wide use, mushrooms do not play any direct role in the rural economy due to the lack of market. The value of mushrooms is not measured in terms of revenues accrued from them but in terms of the large number of people who survive on them during the critical period. The major source of mushrooms is the miombo woodland where mycorrhizal mushrooms live in a symbiotic relationship with specific trees. However, all respondents were convinced that it is now more difficult to get wild mushrooms as compared to the past. The major causes identified by the respondents were deforestation and the erratic nature of rainfall. The steady drop in land productivity and poverty are behind the increasing pressure on woodlands. It is recommended that the government should introduce development projects that are geared towards energy and income generation and increased soil productivity or provide alternative means of living, thus arresting further deforestation and increasing mushroom production.
Participatory soil and water conservation planning using an erosion mapping tool in the central highlands of Kenya
(Wiley, 2007) Okoba, B. O.; Tenge, A. J.; Sterk, G; Stroosnijder, L.
Despite several approaches that aimed at mobilising East African farmers to embrace soil and water conservation (SWC) activities, farmers hardly responded since they were seldom involved in the planning of SWC activities. Two tools that employ farmers' participation were developed and applied at Gikuuri catchment in Kenya. The first tool involved farmers to map soil erosion using their own indicators and determine the soil erosion status at catchment scale. This formed the basis upon which they undertook to plan for SWC measures at catchment scale. Farmers also predicted crop yield losses based on the soil erosion status. Farmers widely approved the soil erosion status map since their own indicators and perceptions were used. The second tool provided cash flow trends for a variety of SWC activities and farmer situations. Farmers can use land with a high, moderate or low erosion status and often have rather different socio‐economic settings. The net benefits over 5 yr for bench terraces, fanya juu terraces and grass strips were illustrated to assist farmers in making informed decisions on SWC adoption. The two tools increased awareness on the need for collective actions among farmers and showed fields that cause run‐on on downslope fields. The improved awareness of erosion problems and the related financial consequences increased farmers' willingness to share the investment costs for cut‐off drains.
Participatory land‐use planning and conservation in northern Tanzania rangelands
(Wiley-Blackwell, 2009) Kaswamila, Abiud L.; Songorwa, Alexander N.
In developing countries, participatory land‐use planning is seen as a panacea to mitigate land‐use conflicts and enhance land productivity. This assumption has not been thoroughly tested in wildlife corridors. Three villages were selected for this study. Several methods were used to provide indication of the performance of the plans against their stated objectives of mitigating conflicts and conserving wildlife corridors. Three hundred and fifty‐eight households and eight park and extension workers were interviewed. In addition, focus group discussion with the nomadic Barabeig, field assessment and review of land‐use plan/general management plan reports were carried out. Results reveal that land‐use plans failed to achieve their set objectives. For example, 75% of the households held this view. Major causes of failure were insufficient participation by stakeholders in the planning process, lack of robust, transparent and accountable implementation strategies, inadequacy of qualified staff and lack of ‘holistic approach’ to the planning process. Taking these findings into account, an improved buffer zone land‐use planning framework is suggested. For the framework to enhance both conservation and development and to enable policies and legislation, equitable benefit sharing and conservation education, initiation of compensation schemes for depredation caused by wild animals and intensification of patrols are required.
Human–wildlife conflicts in Monduli district, Tanzania
(Taylor and Francis, 2009) Kaswamila, Abiud
An assessment of land-use conflicts was conducted in three semi-arid villages within the Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem that are important wildlife dispersal areas and migratory routes linking northeast Tanzania protected areas. Data were collected through household and extension staff interviews, archive data from village government offices and field visits. Conflicts varied across villages and were mainly boundary conflicts with Lake Manyara National Park (LMNP). They included crop destruction and livestock depredation by wild animals, land scarcity, loss of former Manyara Ranch land to Tanzania Lands Conservation Trust (TLCT), which has imposed grazing restrictions, and insufficient buffer zone. An analysis of gender conflicts varied across villages. Several mitigation measures are suggested by both local communities and field extension staff. These include realization of economic benefits from wildlife-related enterprises, relocation of people to low-density areas, implementation of compensation schemes for destruction made by wildlife, intensification of patrols, fencing of the park, need for land-use plans and need for villages to formulate their own natural resources management by-laws. The paper concludes with a series of recommendations.
Vulnerability and adaptation of rain fed agriculture to climate change and variability in semi-arid Tanzania
(Academic Journals, 2010) Mongi, H.; Majule, A. E.; Lyimo, J.G.
A vulnerability assessment of rain fed agriculture to climate change and variability in semi-arid parts of Tabora Region in Tanzania was conducted in 2009. Four village clusters were selected out of which, three villages represent Millennium Villages Program (MVP) namely Mbola, Mpenge and Isila from Uyui District. One village namely Tumbi from Tabora Urban bordering the MVP was also selected. Both primary and secondary data were collected using different methods including structured questionnaire interviews, focus group discussion, documentary review and field observations. Structured questionnaire interviews were administered to 7% of all farmers selected at random from the four villages and 30 research and extension officers obtained through accidental purposeful sampling. Simple regression and t-test analyses of numeric data for rainfall and temperature collected over the last 35 growing seasons were performed using Microsoft Excel and Statistical Analysis System respectively. Non-numeric data were coded, summarized and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences spreadsheet. Results indicate that the overall rainfall amount was found to decline while distribution was varying both in time and space. Inter-seasonal dry spells between January and February appeared to increase both in duration and frequency. Temperature has shown an increasing trend. Minimum temperature increased faster (R2 = 0.68, p<0.001) while maximum temperature increased gradually (R2 = 0.24, p<0.01). Farmers, research and extension officers also perceived these changes by the help of a series of indicators. Nevertheless, perception on the climate change indicators varied depending on the type of livelihood activity most affected. Major implications on rain fed agriculture are possible shrinking of the growing season, increasing moisture and heat stress to common food and cash crops, increased insects and pests and eventually low income and food insecurity. This study concludes that there is strong evidence demonstrating the vulnerability of rain fed agriculture to negative impacts of climate change and variability in the study area. It is suggested that there is a need for multi-level interventions on adaptation to climate change and variability taking into account a wide range of stakeholder involvement.
Is decentralization still recentralization? The local government reform programme in Tanzania
(Taylor & Francis, 2010) Kessy, A. T.; McCourt, W.
Many governments have promoted decentralization, but opinion is divided on whether real devolution of authority from the centre to the local level has occurred. This article uses a study of the Local Government Reform Program (LGRP) in Tanzania to explore whether decentralization is realizing its objectives. Our findings are that LGRP has led to a significant devolution of authority and resources. However, persisting capacity deficits, increased financial dependence on the central government, and political and institutional constraints mean that the achievements have fallen short of the reformers' intentions. The study suggests that even where political will to decentralize exists, it has to translate into identifying and dealing with stubborn and subtle constraints such as, in this case, the contradiction between a new devolved structure and a persisting deconcentrated structure in order for decentralization to reach the logical conclusion that the reformers intended.
Farmers’ preferences and physical effectiveness of soil and water conservation measures in the east african highlands
(JSS, 2011) Tenge, A.J.; Sterk, G.; Okoba, B. O.
Soil erosion by water is a serious threat to sustainable agricultural production in the East African Highlands. Despite the severity of the soil erosion problem, there is not much quantitative information on the effectiveness of the recommended soil and water conservation (SWC) measures, rendering their planning and adoption difficult. This study was conducted in Kwalei catchment Tanzania to assess the physical effectiveness of bench terraces, grass strips and fanya juu terraces, which are the most important SWC measures used in the East African Highlands. Additional information was collected from Gikuuri catchment in Kenya. Trench ditches (at Gikuuri) and runoff plots (at Kwalei) were used to assess the physical effectiveness, while interviews and group discussions were used to obtain farmers' reasons for preferences of certain SWC measures. The results obtained showed significant effects of the tested SWC measures. Surface runoff and soil loss generally decreased, while soil moisture retention and crop yields improved due to the SWC measures. Fanya juu terraces are the most effective measure in reducing soil and water losses followed by bench terraces and grass strips. However, bench terraces retained more soil moisture and increased maize and bean yields than fanya juu and grass strips. Apart from bio-physical criteria to evaluate SWC measures, farmers have other criteria, which depend on their social and economic situations. Important farmers’ criteria are provision of fodder, fertility improvement and low costs for implementation. To facilitate adoption of SWC measures there is a need for consideration and integration of farmers’ criteria into the planning and design of SWC measures, and implementation of SWC activities. Further research work is recommended for identifying economically feasible SWC measures under different biophysical and socio-economic conditions.
Decentralization and citizens’ participation: Some theoretical and conceptual perspectives
(Taylor & Francis, 2013) Kessy, Ambrose
Although the terms decentralization and citizens’ participation sound familiar to scholars and policy makers, their meanings, forms and scope are controversial in the current literature of local governance. The usage of these terms appears to be restricted to abstraction. For instance, the question of measurement has been highly contested in the literature such that any discussion concerning more power to the people and improvement of local governance is “often viewed by critics as no more than a theoretical exercise.”The critical question therefore is how to move these terms from their state of abstraction to a concrete reality. The purpose of this article is therefore to review some theoretical and conceptual issues on decentralization and citizens’ participation in order to question the often-emphasized positive relationship attached to them and their empirical application.
Farm size and productive efficiency: lessons from Mbinga coffee farm-ers
(International Journals of Multidisciplinary Research Academy, 2013) Lutengano, Mwinuka
Productive efficiency measurement is very important both in developed and developing agriculture and its roles are widely recognized by farmers, researchers and policy markers. This study attempted not only to investigate on the farm size and productivity relationship debate which has not gone through a complete circle in Tanzania but also find out whether inefficiency resource use by farmers is a problem or not. The study revealed that, mean level of profit efficiency was 52.4% which implied that an estimated 47.6% of the profit was lost due to a combination of both technical and allocative inefficiency in coffee production. The efficiency difference were explained largely by household size, farmer's experience, age of coffee trees, education level, extension services, capital amounts, and time used by a farmer to move from one coffee farm to another. It was concluded that very small and small size farms were associated with more profit-loss compared to medium size farms. It is recommended that farmers should increase their farm size at least to medium farms of more than 1 262 coffee trees in order to increase coffee farm efficiency hence profit.
Analytical framework model for capacity needs assessment and strategic capacity development within the local government structure in Tanzania
(Scientific Research Publishing, 2014) Kessy, John F.; Kaswamila, Abiud
This is a methodological paper prepared by senior academicians, researchers and consultants from renowned universities in Tanzania. The paper provides insights as to how best development agents can approach the challenge of capacity needs assessment and development of capacity building programs in the context of the local government structure in Tanzania. The paper is of original nature and is based on author’s accumulated knowledge and practice in conducting capacity assessments and developing capacity building programs in Tanzania. The paper describes what can be considered to be best practices in conducting participatory capacity assessment through consultative processes which involves most of the key actors who would be engaged in implementing proposed interventions. The paper puts forward an analytical model for capacity assessment and program development in the Tanzanian context. The main features of the model can be summarized as participatory capacity assessment, strategic capacity building program development and complementarity through synergy building with like-minded stakeholders. The operational modality for utilizing the model in developing capacity building programs which among other components has monitoring and evaluation aspects is included. It is recommended that practitioners and development agents should test the model in their working environments to realize its potential benefits including program ownership by stakeholders.
Sorghum yield response to changing climatic conditions in semi-arid central Tanzania: evaluating crop simulation model applicability
(Scientific Research Publishing, 2014) Msongaleli, Barnabas; Rwehumbiza, Filbert; Tumbo, Siza D.; Kihupi, Nganga
Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) and Agricultural Production Systems SIMulator (APSIM) were calibrated and evaluated to simulate sorghum (Sorghum Bicolor L. Moench) var. Tegemeo under current and future climate in central Tanzania. Simulations for both current and future periods were run assuming present technology, current varieties and current agronomy packages to investigate rain-fed sorghum yield response. Simulations by both crop models using downscaled weather data from eight General Circulation Models (GCMs) under the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) and Representative Concentration Path- way (RCP 4.5) by mid-century show a mixture of increase and decrease in median sorghum yields. Four GCMs project yields to increase by 5% - 23.0% and one GCM show a decrease by 2% - 9%. Model simulations under the remaining three GCMs give contrasting results of increase and de-crease. Adjustment of crop duration to mimic the choice of growing local cultivars versus improved cultivars seems a feasible option under future climate scenarios. Our simulation results show that current open-pollinated sorghum cultivars would be resilient to projected changes in climate by 2050s but things seem better with long duration cultivars. We conclude that crop simulation models show their applicability as tools for assessing possible impacts of climate change on sorghum due to agreement in the direction of crop yield predictions in five out of eight selected GCMs under projected climate scenarios. The findings provide useful guidance and motivation to government authorities and development agencies dealing with food security issues to prioritize adaptations policies geared to ensuring increased and sustained sorghum productivity in Tanzania and elsewhere.
Wood-saving stoves: an opportunity for households to switch technology and contribute to reduction of deforestation and carbon dioxide emission. The case of Kilimanjaro region, Tanzania
(Begell House, 2014) Francis X. Mkanda; Stephen Mutimba; Iddi Mwanyoka; Richard Kibulo; Agrey Mawole
This study examines the energy-consumption pattern in the Kilimanjaro Region in the context of the energy-switch principle and its potential contribution to reduction of deforestation and carbon dioxide emission. Such information will be useful in designing an energy-improvement strategy on emissions reduction linked to a carbon-credit-earning scheme, preferably through the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) "Millennium Development Goal Carbon Initiative," and other carbon markets. The results show that the preferred energy source is firewood, and a majority of respondents are still using 3-stone stoves. Wood-saving stoves are reducing firewood consumption and carbon dioxide emission by 51%, which is an opportunity to contribute to combating deforestation, land degradation, and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission and benefit from the Carbon Initiative. However, considering the high transaction and distribution costs of energy-saving technologies in Tanzania, this opportunity will only be meaningful if the government removed such constraints.
Wireless Sensor Networks for Water Quality Monitoring and Control within Lake Victoria Basin: Prototype Development
(Scientific Research Publishing, Inc., 2014) Faustine, Anthony; Mvuma, Aloys N.; Mongi, Hector J.; Gabriel, Maria C.; Tenge, Albino J.; Kucel, Samuel B.
The need for effective and efficient monitoring, evaluation and control of water quality in Lake Victoria Basin (LVB) has become more demanding in this era of urbanization, population growth and climate change and variability. Traditional methods that rely on collecting water samples, testing and analyses in water laboratories are not only costly but also lack capability for real-time data capture, analyses and fast dissemination of information to relevant stakeholders for making timely and informed decisions. In this paper, a Water Sensor Network (WSN) system prototype developed for water quality monitoring in LVB is presented. The development was preceded by evaluation of prevailing environment including availability of cellular network coverage at the site of operation. The system consists of an Arduino microcontroller, water quality sensors, and a wireless network connection module. It detects water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and electrical conductivity in real-time and disseminates the information in graphical and tabular formats to relevant stakeholders through a web-based portal and mobile phone platforms. The experimental results show that the system has great prospect and can be used to operate in real world environment for optimum control and protection of water resources by providing key actors with relevant and timely information to facilitate quick action taking.
Impacts of climate variability and change on rainfed sorghum and maize: implications for food security policy in Tanzania
(Canadian Center of Science and Education, 2015) Msongaleli, Barnabas M.; Rwehumbiza, Filbert; Tumbo, Siza D.; Kihupi, Nganga
Concern about food security has increased because of a changing climate, which poses a great threat to food crop productivity. Climate change projections from the Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) and crop models were used to investigate the impacts of climate change on rain-fed cereal production. Calibrated and evaluated crop models simulated maize and sorghum yields over time periods and scenarios across central zone Tanzania with and without adaptation. Simulation outputs without adaptation showed predominant decrease and increase in maize and sorghum yields, respectively. The results showed that maize yields were predicted to decline between 1% and 25% across periods, representative concentration pathways (RCPs) and global circulation models (GCMs). However, sorghum yields were on average predicted to increase between 5% and 21%. Overall when adaptation is incorporated toward mid-century, yields are projected to increase for both crops. The yield projections variation between cereal crops highlights the importance of location and crop specific climate change impact assessments. Despite the uncertainties in predicting the impacts of climate change on rainfed crops, especially on cereals (maize and sorghum) which are important staple food crops in semi-arid Tanzania, the findings of this study enable policy makers to develop plans aimed at sustainable food security. In conclusion, the results demonstrate the presumption that sorghum productivity stands a better chance than maize under prospects of negative impacts from climate change in central zone Tanzania.
Language use in the portrayal of both women and men in HIV/AIDS public sensitization texts in the Tanzanian mass media
(IISTE, 2015) Pambila, Mwema Felix
This research paper aimed at exploring how women and men are portrayed in HIV/AIDS public sensitization texts in the Tanzanian mass media. The research was carried out in Dodoma region, Dodoma municipality in central Tanzania. The data was collected in both print and electronic media. Since it is a qualitative research, I analyzed the concepts by describing the essential and core concepts; interpretation of data whereby the issue is studied and described within the broader context to add meaning to the data. In order to explore the social construction of gender roles in language use, I relied on the Feminism Theory (FT) and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), which contends that there is a close relationship between language and power and that language can lead to imbalance power relations.The study reveals that women and men are portrayed differently. Men are shown as active; they are the ones who matter, while women are shown as passive or second class human beings. In the anti-HIV/AIDS discourse, men are portrayed as the ones who are main users of condoms while women are depicted as passive objects. This means that, women have no power over the act of safe sex since they depend on men who decide on whether to use condoms or not.

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